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| Sustainability Spotlight: Aluminum Can Recycling Hits a High |
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Posted by: lolitahe69 - 09-30-2020, 08:56 AM - Forum: Knowledge & Technique
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Americans are getting the message about recycling - in 2010, instead of tossing empty cans in the nearest ordinary trashcan, almost 6 out of every 10 aluminum beverage cans were instead tossed into the nearest recycling bin. This amounts to nearly 56 billion cans entering the recycling stream. Considering that it takes 95 percent less energy to produce a can from recycled material, the amount of energy saved from recycling cans in 2010 is equal to the energy equivalent of 17 million barrels of crude oil, or nearly two days of all U.S. oil imports.
"We are pleased the recycling rate has increased from last year-this is a boost for our industry and further evidence that the aluminum beverage can is the best environmental and sustainability packaging option," says Steve Larkin, president of the Aluminum Assn.
Aluminum cans have proven to be the most recycled and most recyclable beverage container, in fact, they are the only packaging solution that is 100 percent recyclable. A can that is recycled can be back on the store shelf in 60 days - consumers could potentially buy a beverage in the same recycled aluminum can six times a year!
In 2008, the Aluminum Assn. adopted a goal of recycling 75% of aluminum cans by 2015. The recycling rate at that time was 54.2%, and it has been gradually climbing upward since then; the 2010 the used beverage can recycling rate was 58.1%, according to the Aluminum Association, the Can Manufacturers Institute (CMI), and the Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries (ISRI).
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| Advanced Materials for Lightweighting Cars: Aluminum Is Coming on Strong |
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Posted by: aadaasdark8072 - 09-30-2020, 08:55 AM - Forum: Knowledge & Technique
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Aluminum is gaining share in the vehicle market, despite its premium cost, due to performance advantages that are reflected in fuel efficiency and vehicle lifecycle which car buyers are finally beginning to appreciate. I spoke with Kevin Anton, Alcoa's former chief sustainability officer who is retiring from the company at year-end, and Kevin McKnight, the company's new vice president of environment, health, and safety (EHS), who succeeded Anton as CSO on September 1. They have provided much insight into the story of aluminum's growing role in the automotive business.
Transportation is responsible for 28 percent of greenhouse gas emissions in this country, second only to electricity generation. In an effort to reduce these emissions, the Obama administration passed new corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) standards that require vehicles to average 54.5 mpg by the year 2025.
Automakers have determined that advances in powertrain technology alone, including hybrids, plug-ins, all-electrics, and fuel cells, cannot achieve this goal. This required a fresh look at how cars are constructed. The solution was to design cars that are lighter, while retaining the safety features, comfort and affordability of today's cars.
"Back in the '70s, the average American car contained approximately 100 pounds of aluminum," said Anton. "That number has grown to 350 pounds today and is projected to grow to 550 pounds by 2025."
It's worth noting that the average weight of cars dropped from about 4,000 pounds in 1975 to a low of roughly 3,000 pounds in 1987. It has been steadily climbing since then, a trend that automakers need to reverse.
"Aluminum first appeared in wheels, transmission casings, and water pumps, before moving into cylinder heads and suspension parts," said Anton. "A dramatic shift occurred when certain European carmakers, such as Audi and Jaguar began aggressively incorporating aluminum into the welded shell of the car that is referred to as the body in white."
This was done to improve fuel economy and performance. Today, the Tesla Model S, Range Rover, and Corvette feature aluminum bodies. Manufacturers have recently begun to use aluminum in car bodies of more conventional models, not only to meet federal fuel economy standards, but also in response to consumer concerns about rising fuel prices.
"According to market research, five years ago, people were not willing to pay extra for fuel economy, whereas today, it has become a major factor in the purchasing decision," said McKnight. "For the past several years, consumers are actually ahead of CAFE. A recent survey shows that 37 percent of buyers consider fuel economy their number one buying factor. For the OEMs, fuel economy has become a competitive advantage, which leads them to ask, 'How do we get weight out of the car?'"
This development has been good for Alcoa.
The lifecycle of aluminum. Credti: AZOM.com. The lifecycle of aluminum. Credti: AZOM.com.
"We are currently commissioning a $300 million expansion of our Davenport, Iowa, rolling mill, whose output is dedicated to the auto market. The plant's capacity, which will be in full production soon, was sold out the day we broke ground," said Anton. "We have broken ground on auto expansions at our joint venture project in Saudi Arabia and at our facility in Knoxville, Tennessee."
In some ways, you could say that Alcoa is in the right place at the right time. Aluminum prices have not come down, yet demand is growing due to the need for lighter cars. All of this appears to be culminating in what is called the Aluminum Intensive Vehicle (AIV). This car will contain an aluminum hood, forged wheels, radiator, inner doors, drift shaft, numerous fasteners, deck lid, outer body panels, and most of the inner body structure. The aluminum body sheet content is projected to increase by a factor of 10 between 2012 and 2025.
Information posted by the Aluminum Transportation Group describes a study comparing an aluminum-intensive Toyota Venza to a standard model. The baseline model contained 9 percent aluminum and 59 percent steel. The AIV version contained 37 percent aluminum and 30 percent steel, resulting in a 28 percent weight reduction. The AIV version saw an improvement in fuel economy from 27 to 31.8 mpg at a cost premium of $534.
This translates into 32 percent less embodied energy for the AIV than the standard model, despite the fact that aluminum takes four to five times as much energy to produce as steel.
As the car market moves towards aluminum, the industry has taken steps to meet demand. "Alcoa has done a lot of work at our research facility outside of Pittsburgh to facilitate the assembly of cars using more aluminum parts and to overcome what had at one time been a barrier to their use," said McKnight. "Generally speaking, aluminum is joined to itself or other materials through either welding, adhesive bonding, or the use of fasteners. Alcoa has done extensive research on all of these, developing a new patented pre-coat material for adhesive bonding between aluminum and other materials. We are also the world's largest supplier of high tech fasteners for aerospace, and we are now bringing some of that experience to bear in the auto industry. This allows people to use existing equipment for assembly. It also enables lower cost, better joining using proprietary technology.
"This work started long ago when we first developed the alloying technology that allowed aluminum to outperform steel in things like collapsibility, and energy absorption, providing excellent protection for the cab of a vehicle. It started with Audi on major technology advances that provided the facility to put more aluminum into automobiles. Now we're realizing the light-weighted value of that and expanding the use of aluminum across all aspects of the platform."
Alcoa is celebrating it 125th year of operations and is proud to point out that it supplied material to both the Ford Model T and the Wright Brothers.
"As for sustainability, yes, aluminum requires a great deal of electricity to smelt," said Anton. "But two-thirds of that energy for Alcoa's smelters worldwide comes from hydropower. Furthermore, aluminum is infinitely recyclable. Because its properties do not degrade when recycled, it is possible to reuse it very effectively. Only 5 percent new material needs to be added when aluminum is recycled. Even more impressive is the fact the 75 percent of all aluminum we've ever produced is still in circulation, though it may have taken numerous forms over time."
In response to the fact that aluminum production emits five times the amount of carbon as steel, Anton said, "While aluminum may require more energy in the production phase, it easily wins in the use phase and the end of life/recycling phase. So, when you look at the overall lifecycle analysis, it's clear that vehicles made with aluminum have a smaller footprint than comparable vehicles made primarily with steel."
Anton pointed out that an SAE paper written by proponents of magnesium substantiates that claim. The paper shows that in the long run, aluminum has the lowest footprint of the three metals, both for carbon and for energ
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| aluminum Industry Seeks Solutions to Overcapacity Quandary |
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Posted by: lolitahe69 - 09-30-2020, 08:48 AM - Forum: Knowledge & Technique
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he aluminum industry has been suffering from overcapacity for the past two years, depressing prices and pushing producers to search for survival strategies, such as exploring new markets and innovating in specialty product categories.
As with many industrial market trends today, the overcapacity problem stems from China's rapid economic expansion. According to London-based research firm CRU, China now has an installed aluminum production capacity of 28 million tons and is producing at a rate of 24 million tons per year.
The Chinese government has been making some efforts to pull back production. However, Diana Kinch, a reporter for Dow Jones, wrote recently in The Wall Street Journal that, on net, the efforts are not reducing capacity because of contradictory incentives: "[China] continues to build new smelter capacity in Xinjiang in the country's northwest, where abundant coal makes energy cheaper than in other provinces and some new smelters gain tax incentives."
As such, the pressure to cut capacity has fallen on aluminum producers in competing economies. U.S. aluminum company Alcoa and Russian producer Rusal are both planning capacity cuts totaling 1 million tons to reduce global inventories and prop up prices. CRU estimates global inventories right now at 12 million tons, but warns that the industry needs to close 3 million tons of smelter capacity "to solve the immediate oversupply problem."
CRU analysts told Kinch that the problem should eventually come under control, but not soon. According to consultant Ling Wong, "[China's] share of global aluminum production will continue to rise, from about 46 percent now to over 50 percent by the end of the decade, when it could reach 42 million tons, which is quite scary. After that, capacity will stabilize."
IMT asked representatives of the Arlington, Va.-based Aluminum Association what its members -- which includes aluminum producers and producers of fabricated products -- see as their most promising strategies for navigating these troubled waters. Communications Director Matt Meenan responded that his organization believes "the fundamentals of the aluminum industry in North America are sound" and that its member companies "are well-positioned to capture future growth opportunities."
Meenan said that demand for and consumption of aluminum "have grown nearly 30 percent since reaching lows in 2009" and are heading back to pre-recession levels. Advancements in the transportation sector pushed North American demand up 6 percent from 2011 to 2012.
Alcoa also takes a positive view of its aluminum prospects. In his April 8 presentation, CEO and chairman Klaus Kleinfeld told investors that the company is strong, saying, "All segments are profitable. Net income is the best net income since the third quarter of '11," with earnings up 16 percent sequentially. He said he expects aluminum demand to grow 7 percent for 2013 and touted his company's improved performance "despite year-on-year lower metal prices."
The second-quarter shareholder report was less rosy, revealing a $45 million profit loss. Still, the company posted $76 million in earnings and $5.85 billion in revenue. Alcoa also boasted $539 million in what it called "productivity savings" for the first half of 2013, which is more than two-thirds of its $750 million annual target.
Research firm IBISWorld, based in Melbourne, Australia, says that the global aluminum industry shrank from 2008 to 2013 at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of -5.3 percent. However, the company predicts that this trend will reverse, moving to a positive 3.2 percent CAGR from 2013 to 2018. IBISWorld expects the price of the metal to rise from $1,964 per metric ton in 2013 to $2,304 per metric ton in 2018.
Meanwhile, industry insiders are saying that the real opportunities for innovative companies in aluminum are not in commodity production but in more specialized value-add markets.
Meenan of The Aluminum Association told IMT that progress in the automotive sector is good news for the industry. Automotive has seen "40 years of uninterrupted growth in aluminum use," and "aluminum use in autos is expected to double by 2025 as consumers demand more fuel efficient vehicles."
In his April presentation, Alcoa's Kleinfeld said he sees continued growth in all of Alcoa's global end markets, including aerospace, automotive, truck and trailer, packaging, construction, and gas turbines. The company's value-add businesses, he said, are "driving 71 percent of segment profits."
Possibly the most exciting segment for Alcoa is aerospace, which accounts for $3.8 billion in annual company revenue. Kleinfeld predicts that Alcoa's aerospace revenues will grow at a rate of 11.6 percent from 2012 to 2015. He told his shareholder audience that the company is very well positioned in this value-add segment. "More than 90 percent of all aluminum aerospace alloys have been developed by Alcoa," he said. "Every western commercial aircraft flying today uses Alcoa fasteners, and every western commercial and military aircraft engine uses Alcoa castings."
But the company has further opportunities in aerospace, Kleinfeld insisted, especially considering the drive toward light-weighting of aircraft. Citing an example of how innovation can help Alcoa increase its value-add businesses, he told the audience that company metallurgists have developed an aluminum-lithium combination that is lighter and stronger.
"Therefore, it very much supports the goal of 20 percent fuel efficiency improvement. It has improved corrosion and fatigue properties that allow the inspection interval to be doubled, so it reduces the inspection costs," he said. Kleinfeld expects the company's aluminum-lithium revenues to quadruple by 2020.
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| Chrome vs. Anodized Aluminum for Shiny Cars |
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Posted by: aadaasdark8072 - 09-30-2020, 08:46 AM - Forum: Knowledge & Technique
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The discovery of the chrome electroplating process by Columbia University scientists, Colin Fink and Charles Eldridge in the 1920s, saw the rise in the use of chrome in the automotive industry. Known for its resistance to corrosion, decorative properties, hardness, and durability, applications of chrome escalated after the second industrial revolution.
The world’s automotive chromium market was valued at approximately $14.3 billion in the year 2015 due to an increase in decorative plating demands and sales of passenger vehicles. Business Wire analysts forecasted the growth of the chrome industry to be in the region of 6% during the period 2018 to 2022.
While the future of the chrome industry seemed bright at the time, there have been several developments that indicate otherwise. As a result, the hunt is on to find and develop viable alternatives to chrome, such as anodized aluminum.
Chrome: A Material with a Dark Side
In the automotive industry, the most common form of chrome used is hexavalent chromium (hex chrome) but in the 1920s, hex chrome was found to be carcinogenic in nature after multiple incidents of lung and nasal cancer amongst workers arose. It was not, however, until 1980 that the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) officially documented the material as cancerous.
Hex chrome has been proven to result in severe health issues not limited to cancer, but also including irritation of the nose, throat, eye, and skin, and damage to the kidney and liver. It also poses a threat to the environment as it introduces genotoxicity to botanic and aquatic life through the contamination of water from poor disposal practices.
Due to its nature, the European Union added hex chrome to its list of hazardous substances in 2003 and restricted its use in the production of electrical and electronic equipment to be sold from mid-2006. The EU’s End of Life Vehicle Directive dictated that preventative corrosion coatings made from hex chrome should be limited to 2g per vehicle.
In 2006 Ford would phase out the use of hex chrome in its worldwide operations. In the U.S., the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) delineated that the permissible exposure limit for workers in the chrome plating industry should be reduced from 52 μg/m3 to 5 μg/m3. There was a further reduction in this value by OSHA in 2009.
Legislation limiting the use or leading to the elimination of hex chrome usage altogether continues to be implemented. In Europe, the Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) no longer permits the use of hex chrome as of 2017.
Advantages of Anodized Aluminum
As the negative effects of hex chrome have become more widely known, alternatives have been identified to replace its use in the automotive industry. One such promising substitution is anodized aluminum, which forms when aluminum is treated through an electrochemical process to produce a durable finish. An aluminum became increasingly popular in the automotive industry, increasing by 40% between 1995 and 1998, the use of anodization has followed.
Benefits associated with the use of anodized aluminum include: - Reduced costs in finishing and vehicle maintenance,
- Durability leading to an extended life span and less maintenance, as products made from anodized aluminum are less likely to flake or peel,
- A wide range of appearance choices, as its finishes come in numerous colors and can vary from textured to smooth or matte to bright,
- Lowered shipping costs due to its lighter weight,
- Lowered impact on the environment.
Anodized aluminum is also not harmful to human health if produced in a well-ventilated area, and proper procedures are followed.
Despite the hazards associated with hex chrome, chrome has still not been fully eliminated from today's automotive industry. However, more organizations are looking to alternatives such as anodized aluminum since there are fewer risks associated with its widespread use.
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| Where Tin Can't, Aluminum Can! |
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Posted by: lolitahe69 - 09-30-2020, 08:45 AM - Forum: aluminium faq
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As the prohibition era ended, tin cans took over the nation as the beverage container of choice for soda and beer. Lighter than glass but less prone to breakage, they were great for transporting and cheaper since they didn't have to be returned after consumption. However, because people were no longer returning these cans, they became part of the new American "throwaway culture," ending up on the side of the road, in lakes, and littered across the landscape.
In the '50s “Ban The Can” became an environmental rallying cry, catching the attention of engineer William Coors of the Coors beer mogul family. Despite the huge savings the tin cans provided, he resented the littering and the metallic taste that became part of drinking anything out of a can. Teaming up with promotor Lou Bronstein, together they created the recyclable aluminum can.
The softer aluminum meant there was no need for solder seams as with tin, making the cans more sanitary and eliminating the “tin taste.” Lightweight aluminum used much less energy than other materials during the recycling process and the scrap metal price for aluminum was high enough to incentivize people to recycle.
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| Is Aluminum the Answer to Sustainable Packaging? |
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Posted by: lolitahe69 - 09-30-2020, 08:43 AM - Forum: aluminium faq
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Increased attention to the social and environmental impacts of products and services is changing the way consumers are viewing their purchases. 81% of global consumers believe that companies should take steps to improve the environment, according to a report by Nielson Holdings.
As a result, many companies are adopting sustainable packaging to show their commitment to preserving the environment. Coca-Cola and PepsiCo announced this year that they would be rolling out water packaged in aluminum cans to cut down on plastic waste.
Aluminum packaging has also garnered support from celebrities; Jason Mamoa announced in April 2019 that he would be partnering with Ball Corporation to produce a line of aluminum-canned water called Mananalu.
While aluminum packaging can certainly reduce the demand for single-use plastic bottles and containers, is it the definitive solution to sustainable packaging?
The answer, as it turns out, is complicated.
Why is Aluminum an Appealing Option for Sustainable Packaging?
The environmental appeal of aluminum is due primarily to its recyclability. In addition to being 100% recyclable, aluminum can also be recycled indefinitely without a significant reduction in quality. Most food-grade plastics, on the other hand, are ‘downcycled,’ as their quality degrades with each recycling process.
Almost 75% of all aluminum ever produced is still in use today, says the Aluminum Association. By contrast, only 9% of plastics ever produced have been through the recycling process.
Additionally, recycling aluminum is relatively easy compared to plastics. Unlike plastic packaging, aluminum products do not need to undergo complicated sorting before recycling. Additionally, the energy consumed during the aluminum recycling process is significantly less than that for plastics, leading to lower recycling costs and reduced carbon emissions.
Aluminum Packaging Concerns
Shifting to aluminum packaging can help reduce the demand for plastic; however, this switch creates a new problem – an increased demand for virgin aluminum. While aluminum recycling is an energy-efficient process, the production of new aluminum is energy-intensive and environmentally destructive.
Aluminum smelting results in the production of harmful byproducts such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. The production of 1 ton of aluminum can result in 5 tons of liquid waste, which can pollute soils and groundwater.
To reap the sustainable rewards of using aluminum, companies like Coca Cola and PepsiCo must ensure their investments are directed mostly toward recycled aluminum as opposed to virgin aluminum.
Also, while some new aluminum cans will get recycled, others often end up in the trash. More than $700 million worth of aluminum cans are sent to landfills every year in the U.S. alone. Therefore, the push towards aluminum packaging needs to be complemented with the necessary recycling infrastructure to promote recycling and divert discarded aluminum away from landfills.
The shift toward aluminum packaging for the purposes of sustainability is complicated. Aluminum can provide numerous environmental benefits, but only if recycled materials are used in preference to new aluminum and plastics. While this material may not be the ultimate solution to sustainable packaging, it can help bring focus to the environmental impacts associated with a product’s entire lifecycle, instead of only what happens after disposal.
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| Applications of Aluminum Bronze |
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Posted by: lolitahe69 - 09-30-2020, 08:39 AM - Forum: Knowledge & Technique
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Aluminum bronze is a type of copper alloy in which aluminum is the primary alloying element added to the copper. This stands in contrast to standard bronze or brass, in which the alloying elements are tin and zinc, respectively. Aluminum enhances copper by imparting oxidation resistance in the form of a thin, tightly adherent aluminum oxide film. Other metals such as manganese, nickel, silicon, and iron can be added to aluminum bronze to further enhance strength or anti-corrosive properties.
The manufacturing process for creating aluminum bronze is similar to the techniques involved for other copper alloys. First, the copper element is heated to a predetermined temperature. Once the copper is in its molten state, specified amounts of aluminum are added (in addition to other alloying elements, which will depend on the type of alloy desired). The molten mixture is then poured into the mold for the specific component and allowed to cool.
[b]Types of Aluminum Bronze[/b]
There are numerous types of aluminum bronze as categorized by the Unified Numbering System (UNS), developed by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). These alloys differ mainly based on the amount of primary element (aluminum) and the number of secondary elements alloyed with the copper.
The various types of aluminum bronze are defined in the UNS using reference numbers ranging from C95200 to C95800. For instance, C95200 aluminum bronze contains 8.5% to 9.5% aluminum by weight, while C95300 contains 9.0% to 11.0%
Although there are dozens of aluminum bronze alloys available, they can all be classified into four principal types:
- Low-alloy, single-phase alloys — These alloys contain less than 8% aluminum and have excellent cold ductility properties, making them ideal for cold working into tubes, strips, sheets, and wires.
- Moderately alloyed, two-phase (duplex) alloys — These alloys contain 8% to 11% aluminum and small amounts of other elements added for higher strength properties. These materials are suitable for hot working applications. Aluminum bronze casting is also a popular method for working these alloys.
- Copper-aluminum-silicon alloys, or silicon-aluminum bronzes — These alloys contain up to 6% aluminum and 2% silicon. Similar to other bronzes, these materials have low magnetic permeability as well as exceptional resistance to shock and vibrational loading.
- Copper-manganese-aluminum alloys, or manganese-aluminum bronzes — Unlike other aluminum bronzes, manganese is the primary alloying element by weight (approximately 13%) in these materials, while aluminum makes up about 8% to 9%. Although these alloys do not possess the same strength properties as the other types, they have excellent resistance to impingement, cavitation, and wear.
[b]Common Uses for Aluminum Bronze[/b]
Thanks to its desirable mechanical properties, superior corrosion resistance, and high castability and machinability, aluminum bronze is used in a wide range of applications. Some typical applications include: - General seawater-related service — The oxide film produced by aluminum bronze imbues it with exceptional corrosion resistance in seawater environments. The material’s wear and erosion resistance also make the material suitable for impellers, propellers, and other marine hardware.
- Water supply — The corrosion resistance of aluminum bronze can be highly beneficial for components used in the water treatment and supply industry, in which corrosion is always a major concern.
- Oil and petrochemical industries — Aluminum bronze is also known for its non-sparking characteristics. This attribute is especially useful for parts and components used in the oil and gas industry, in which the surrounding atmosphere may contain explosive or ignitable gas, vapor, or dust.
- Specialized anti-corrosive applications — This alloy can also be used in aggressive, corrosive environments that would be otherwise unsuitable for other copper alloys such as brass. Aluminum bronze is also resistant to biofouling in saline waters.
- Certain structural retrofit building applications — The unique properties of aluminum bronze make it able to withstand heavy loads, shock, and vibrational load. This makes the material ideal for bearings in bridges and base isolation systems in buildings for seismic retrofitting applications.
[b]Working With Aluminum Bronze[/b]
Aluminum bronze comes in many different compositions, with each alloy offering unique properties for various applications. Whether working with aluminum bronze 954 or 958, high corrosion resistance and superior mechanical properties make these materials a go-to choice for a wide range of demanding environments.
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| Aluminum Alloys in the Aerospace Industry |
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Posted by: lolitahe69 - 09-30-2020, 08:38 AM - Forum: Knowledge & Technique
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The aircraft and aerospace industries have long relied upon aluminum alloys. The first aircraft could never have taken flight without the aluminum alloy utilized in its engine. The Sputnik satellite was able to survive its journey through our fiery outer atmosphere and into space because the body was constructed of aluminum. Even today, NASA is using an aluminum-lithium hybrid in the cutting-edge Orion spacecraft.
Whether engineering a commercial airplane or constructing a sophisticated space-bound shuttle, aluminum alloys serve as crucial materials. Most commonly utilized in fuselage, wing, and supporting-structure construction, aluminum alloys offer a range of benefits for both aircraft and space flight engineering.
Aluminum alloys for aerospace applications are employed to deal with the sub-zero temperature conditions encountered in the freezing vacuum of space. Aluminum alloys used in aircraft construction, on the other hand, offer durability and resistance to various types of corrosion. The high stability of these alloys makes them ideal for use in mechanical components, which also benefit from aluminum’s high electrical conductivity.
Types of Aluminum Alloys
Various types of aluminum alloys (AA) are available, each offering unique characteristics and compositions to meet specific application needs.
Primarily composed of copper, AA 2024 is often used to cope with high strength-to-weight ratios. AA 2024 is most commonly used in the construction of wings and fuselages due to the high tension requirements of these components.
AA 2014 is the second-most popular alloy in aerospace engineering. Strong and durable, this alloy’s only flaw is its substandard resistance to corrosive elements. Because of this, AA 2014 is often used in the internal portions of aircraft rather than the external structure.
AA 5052 is the strongest alloy in the non-heat-treatable category. This alloy offers good flexibility, and can be formed into a range of configurations. AA 5052 also offers the highest resistance to saltwater corrosion when utilized in marine applications.
AA 6061 is one of the most commonly used alloys, particularly by amateur and hobbyist aircraft builders. It is often utilized in the aerospace industry for wings and fuselages.
Primarily composed of zinc, AA 7075 has been employed in various aircraft components since the Second World War, and remains a popular production alloy today. Aluminum alloy 7075 offers steel-like strength and is easily machined.
One of the most sought-after alloys in the aerospace industry, AA 7050 has a higher capacity for corrosion resistance than AA 7075, and is much more durable.
The strongest alloy utilized today, AA 7068 combines high strength and low mass, making this alloy ideal for military applications requiring materials that can withstand harsh conditions.
Allowing for highly effective heat transfer, AA 1100, AA 1145, and AA 3003, among others, are all commonly employed in the manufacture of fin stock.
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| How Are Aluminum Extrusions Made? |
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Posted by: lolitahe69 - 09-30-2020, 08:29 AM - Forum: aluminium faq
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aluminum extrusion is a versatile metal-shaping process in which a machine guides aluminum through a shaped opening in a die. This process results in an elongated piece of aluminum formed into the shape of the die. The extrusion process allows for the creation of a wide range of complex, custom metal shapes.
The Extrusion Process
Extrusion is a multi-step process. Once the design for the desired part shape has been finalized, production can begin. It’s critical to have a solid understanding of the exact requirements for the part, as the intended function, look, and environment of the product will determine which alloy is used to create it. Different aluminum alloys offer distinctive features and benefits; therefore, some alloys will be better suited than others for specific applications. Once the alloy and design are selected, a die is produced in the needed shape, as well as any other tooling required for the press to make the new part.
To begin the actual extrusion, a heat treatment is applied to a billet — an unshaped bar of aluminum — to soften the metal and make it more pliable. The temperature of this heat treatment is usually between 800 °F and 925 °F. The softened billet is then placed into a hydraulic press, where a lubricant is applied to the billet and ram in order to prevent them from sticking to one another. (The ram is an arm of the press that pushes the billet through the machine.) As the ram starts to apply pressure to the billet in a container within the press, the ram begins to compress the softened billet against the die, and the billet becomes shorter and wider in the container. The pressure gradually pushes the billet until it squeezes through the die, emerging on the other side in the desired shape.
Once the extruded metal reaches its desired length, the die is cut with a profile saw or shears, and excess material is recycled. After the extruded aluminum metal cools, a stretching machine is used to straighten and increase the metal’s hardness and strength. After the stretching stage, the extrusion is cut into smaller lengths to form individual parts. These parts then undergo “aging,” a process that speeds up the aging process with controlled temperatures to increase the metal’s hardness and durability. Other treatments may then be applied to the extruded aluminum parts to imbue them with certain properties or performance capabilities before being sent out for packaging and shipping.
Aluminum Extrusion Alloys
Several aluminum alloys can be used in the aluminum extrusion process, such as the 1000 series, 6000 series, and 7000 series — each offering different qualities that make them ideal for specific uses.
The 1000 series of alloys is non-heat treatable and has low strength; these alloys are often used in products requiring high thermal and electrical conductivity. The 6000 series is heat treatable, has medium-to-high strength, is easy to weld, and resists corrosion well. The 6000 series alloys hold up well under the extrusion process and, as a result, are the most commonly extruded material in load-bearing constructions. The 7000 series, meanwhile, offers the highest strength of the alloys most widely used in construction materials. The 7000 series alloys are easy to weld and lose less strength in areas affected by heat than the 6000 series. The 7000 series alloys are commonly used in automotive parts, aircraft containers, bicycle frames, and speedboats.
Benefits of Aluminum Extrusion
Aluminum extrusion offers a range of unique benefits, particularly in comparison to die casting, another popular method for shaping metal.
In die casting, molten metal is injected into a mold, which is known as the die. For easy visualization of the process, picture pouring batter into a tin in order to make a cake; the batter is the molten metal, the tin is the die, and the final product — the cake — is the complex shape produced. These intricate shapes can include complex cross-sections. Extrusion also allows for the working of very brittle materials, since the material only deals with shear and compressive stresses.
While die casting serves as a versatile, reliable process for many applications and industries, extrusion is much more cost-effective due to the lower tooling costs involved. Plus, parts made with the extrusion process can be just as strong and rigid as those created using die casting. And extruded parts actually have higher ductility than those made using the die casting process. In general, die casting is better suited to applications requiring parts that do not have uniform cross-sections.
Below are a few of the main benefits offered by aluminum extrusion.
Ability to meet high production volumes
Cost efficiency
Ability to work many types of materials
Creation of complex, intricate parts
Ability to work brittle materials
Continuous process
Common Aluminum Extrusion Applications
With so many options available for customizing the shape and characteristics of aluminum, it’s little surprise that aluminum extrusions have applications in a wide range of industries. Extruded aluminum products can be found in transportation, electronics, automotive, renewable energy, construction, and telecommunications fields, among many others.
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Posted by: lolitahe69 - 09-30-2020, 07:41 AM - Forum: Knowledge & Technique
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When beginning any project, material selection is one of the most fundamental choices that can dictate its success. Airplanes, computers, buildings, and other modern technologies all use specialized materials that allow them to complete amazing tasks, and one of the most important materials in this regard is the metal aluminum. Aluminum is the most abundant metal on Earth, making it an attractive, cost-effective option for builders when considering metal for their project. Along with its abundance, aluminum has the ability to be alloyed – a process that improves a base metal’s properties by adding trace amounts of other metallic “alloying” elements into it. This alloying process has allowed many grades of aluminum alloys to be produced, and there are so many grades that the Aluminum Association has classified these types of aluminum into categories based on alloying elements and material properties. This article will give a brief introduction to the different types of aluminum, how they differ, and which alloys are best suited for certain applications.
Aluminum Association Naming Scheme
The Aluminum Association Inc. is the foremost authority on aluminum metal and its derivatives in North America. They have organized the hundreds of aluminum alloys into grades, which are given four-digit identifiers that contain information about their composition and processing. Many of these alloys have been divided into classes, which are denoted by the first digit in their names (ex. 4xxx, 6xx.x, and 2xxx, are all different grades of aluminum). The following three digits describe specific alloys, hardening processes, and other information that could be useful to manufacturers, but will not be explored in this article, as they are more pertinent to alloy makers and not buyers.
Cast vs. Wrought Aluminum
Aluminum alloys can be broadly separated into two categories: cast aluminum alloys and wrought aluminum alloys. Cast alloys of aluminum are those which contain > 22% alloying elements by composition, whereas wrought aluminum alloys contain ≤4%. This may seem like a simple difference, but the percentage of alloying elements has a huge impact on material properties. Aluminum loses its ductility as more alloying elements are added, making most cast alloys susceptible to brittle fracture. Conversely, wrought alloys have allowed designers to increase aluminum’s strength, corrosion resistance, conductivity, etc. while still retaining ductility and other beneficial qualities.
Cast aluminum alloys typically have low melting points and tensile strength when compared to wrought aluminum; the most commonly used aluminum alloy is aluminum-silicon, which features high levels of silicon that enable the alloy to be easily cast. Wrought aluminum accounts for the majority of aluminum products, such as those manufactured from extrusion or rolling. Elements such as copper, manganese, silicon, magnesium, magnesium silicon combinations, zinc, and lithium define the individual wrought aluminum alloy categories.
Cast Alloys
Cast alloys of aluminum are named using four numbers, with a decimal between the third and fourth digit. The first three numbers indicate the alloy, and the fourth number indicates the form the product is in. Below, in Table 1, is shown the different types of cast aluminum, their common alloying elements, and their basic material properties. Note that the properties (cracking, corrosion, finishing, joining) are given ratings of 1 to 5, 5 being the worst and 1 being the best, and are generalized quantifications of their capabilities:
Table 1: Different cast aluminum grades, with their general information shown.
Note: Cells with no number indicate that the value is not often specified, or is too difficult to generalize. A rating of 1 is considered exceptional, a rating of 5 is considered very poor, and 2-4 fall within this range.
[b]Aluminum grade[/b]
[b]Alloying elements[/b]
[b]Strengthening Process[/b]
[b]Cracking[/b]
[b]Corrosion Resistance[/b]
[b]Finishing[/b]
[b]Joining[/b]
1xx.x
unalloyed
Non-heat-treatable
-
1
1
1
2xx.x
Copper
Heat-treatable
4
4
1-3
2-4
3xx.x
Silicon, Magnesium, Copper
Heat-treatable
1-2
2-3
3-4
1-3
4xx.x
Silicon
Heat-treatable
1
2-3
4-5
1
5xx.x
Magnesium
Non-heat-treatable
4
2
1-2
3
6xx.x
NOT USED
NOT USED
-
-
-
-
7xx.x
Zinc
Heat-treatable
4
4
1-2
4
8xx.x
Tin, Copper, Nickel
Heat-treatable
5
5
3
5
1xx.x alloys
1xx.x cast alloys are commercially pure, unalloyed aluminum, which has exceptional corrosion resistance, finishing qualities, and welding characteristics. 1xx.x alloys are often used in manufacturing rotors or cladding corrosion-prone alloys.
2xx.x alloys
2xx.x cast alloys use primarily copper as their alloying element, though magnesium, manganese, and chromium are often included. They are heat-treatable, meaning they can gain additional strength via the heat-treatment process (find our explanation on heat-treatment in our article all about 2024 aluminum alloy). They sport the highest strength and hardness among all casting alloys, especially at higher temperatures. The copper in its composition leaves it susceptible to corrosion, and it is less ductile and susceptible to cracks when heated. Common applications for 2xx.x alloys include automotive cylinder heads, exhaust system parts, and aircraft engine parts.
3xx.x alloys
3xx.x cast alloys use silicon, copper, and magnesium as the main alloying elements, oftentimes with supplemental nickel and beryllium. They are heat treatable, have high strength, good resistance to cracking and wear, and have good machinability. Common applications for 3xx.x alloys include automotive cylinder blocks/heads, car wheels, compressor/pump parts, and aircraft fittings.
4xx.x alloys
4xx.x cast alloys use solely silicon as their alloying element. 4xx.x alloys are non-heat treatable and have great casting qualities, along with good welding characteristics, strength, corrosion resistance, and wear resistance. Common applications for 4xx.x alloys include pump casings, cookware, and bridge railing support casings.
5xx.x alloys
5xx.x cast alloys use magnesium as their primary alloying element and are not heat-treatable. They resist corrosion well, have good machinability, and have a great surface aesthetic when anodized. Common applications for 5xx.x alloys include sand casted parts.
7xx.x alloys
7xx.x cast alloys contain zinc as their main alloying element and are heat-treatable. They do not cast well but have good dimensional stability, machinability, finishing qualities, and fair corrosion resistance.
8xx.x
8xx.x cast alloys use primarily tin, as well as small amounts of copper and nickel in its composition, and are not heat-treatable. These alloys have low strength, but great machinability and wear resistance. They were developed for bearing applications, such as bi-metal slide bearings for internal combustion engines.
Wrought Alloys
Wrought aluminum alloys are named using a four-digit indicator just as with cast alloys, but they do not contain any decimal places. It is therefore easy to differentiate a cast aluminum alloy from a wrought alloy by simply looking at the structure of its name. The first digit denotes the class of aluminum alloys that share alloying elements, where each alloy within a class contains different percentages of trace elements specific to each blend. These alloys tend to be more versatile than cast alloys thanks to their increased material properties, and Table 2 shows the different wrought alloy classes, their strengthening processes, as well as their improved characteristics (strength, corrosion resistance, workability, joining/welding). These wrought alloys use the same ratings as shown in Table 1 (1 being the best and 5 being the worst):
Table 2: Different cast aluminum grades, with their general information shown.
[b]Aluminum grade[/b]
[b]Alloying elements[/b]
[b]Strengthening Process[/b]
[b]Strength[/b]
[b]Corrosion Resistance[/b]
[b]Workability/Formability[/b]
[b]Joining/Welding[/b]
1xxx
Unalloyed (99% Al)
Strain-hardening
5
1
1
3
2xxx
Copper
Heat-treatable
1
4
4
5
3xxx
Manganese
Strain-hardening
3
2
1
1
4xxx
Silicon
Depends on alloy
3
4
1
1
5xxx
Magnesium
Strain-hardening
2
1
1
1
6xxx
Magnesium, Silicon
Heat-treatable
2
3
2
2
7xxx
Zinc
Heat-treatable
1
1
4
3
8xxx
Other elements
Limited
-
-
-
-
1xxx alloys
1xxx alloys are not true alloys, as they are 99% pure commercial aluminum. They are very useful as chemical/electrical materials and have exceptional corrosion resistance and workability. These alloys can be strain hardened or given increased strength by mechanical deformation (more information on strain hardening can be found in our article all about 5052 aluminum alloy).
A popular alloy of this class is 1100 aluminum alloy, which is commercially pure aluminum. The material is soft and ductile and has excellent workability, making it suitable for hard-forming applications. It can be welded with any method, but it cannot be heat-treated. It has excellent corrosion resistance and is widely used in the chemical and food processing sectors.
2xxx alloys
2xxx alloys are wrought alloys that principally use copper, and often small amounts of magnesium as their alloying elements. They gain exceptional strength when heat-treated, rivaling low carbon steels, but are prone to corrosion due to its copper content.
2024 aluminum alloy is one of the most frequently used aluminum alloys of high strength. It is frequently used where an excellent strength-to-weight ratio is desired with its mixture of high strength and outstanding fatigue resistance. This grade can be machined to a high finish, and if necessary, it can be formed with subsequent heat treatment in the annealed condition. The corrosion resistance of this grade is comparatively low. When this is a problem, 2024 is frequently used in an anodized finish or in clad form (thin high purity aluminum surface layer) known as Alclad. Learn more by reading our article all about 2024 aluminum alloy.
3xxx alloys
3xxx alloys use manganese as their main alloying element, which improves its strength over other non-heat treatable alloys such as the 1xxx series. They are moderate-strength alloys with great working and finishing characteristics, and this grade contains one of the best general-purpose alloys available today, 3003 aluminum. This is the most widely used of all aluminum alloys, and is made from commercially pure aluminum with added manganese (20% stronger than the 1100 grade) to increase its strength. It has excellent resistance to corrosion and workability. This grade can be deep drawn or spun, welded, or brazed. Learn more about this invaluable alloy in our article on 3003 aluminum alloy.
4xxx alloys
4xxx alloys use silicon as its alloying element to lower their melting points without compromising ductility. They are commonly used as welding wire and brazing alloy to join other grades of aluminum. Certain 4xxx alloys can be heat treated to a limited extent but are generally not responsive to heat treatment. Oxide finishes of 4xxx alloys are aesthetically pleasing and often used in architectural applications. Aluminum alloy 4047 is a popular type of this alloy grade which offers good thermal and electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance, and a higher melting point.
5xxx alloys
The major alloying element in 5xxx aluminum alloys is magnesium, with trace amounts of manganese in certain alloys. These alloys are strain-hardenable, readily weldable, and resist corrosion exceptionally well, especially in marine environments. Common applications of 5xxx alloys are boat hulls, gangplanks, and other marine equipment.
5052 aluminum is the highest strength alloy of the more non-heat-treatable grades. Its resistance to fatigue is better than most grades of aluminum. Alloy 5052 has a good marine atmosphere corrosion resistance of saltwater and excellent workability. It can be drawn or formed easily into intricate forms. More information can be found in our article on 5052 aluminum alloy.
6xxx alloys
6xxx alloys implement magnesium with silicon as their principal alloying elements. Their strength is improved with heat treatment, and while not as strong as 2xxx and 7xxx alloys, they couple good strength with good formability, weldability, machinability, and fair corrosion resistance. They are commonly used in architectural, marine, and general-purpose applications.
6061 aluminum alloy is the most flexible of the heat-treatable aluminum alloys while maintaining most of the excellent aluminum characteristics. This grade has a wide range of mechanical properties and resistance to corrosion. It can be manufactured using common methods and it has excellent workability in the annealed condition. It is welded with all techniques and can be brazed with a furnace. More information can be found in our article on 6061 aluminum alloy.
7xxx alloys
7xxx alloys are the strongest of all wrought alloys, boasting strengths exceeding some steels, which is due to using zinc as its primary alloying element. The inclusion of zinc also decreases its workability and machinability, but its exceptional strength justifies these downsides.
7075 aluminum is a commonly used 7xxx alloy for aircraft applications, mobile equipment, and other highly stressed parts, as it is one of the highest strength aluminum alloys available. It has an excellent weight-to-strength ratio and is ideal for highly stressed parts. In the annealed condition, this grade can be formed and heat-treated if necessary. It can also be welded in place or flash (not recommended for arc and gas). Learn more in our article on 7075 aluminum alloy.
8xxx alloys
8xxx alloys use many different kinds of alloying elements and are reserved for specific requirements such as elevated temperature performance, lower densities, higher stiffness, and other unique properties. They are commonly used in helicopter components, and other aerospace applications, and are experimental in design.
Aluminum Grade Specification & Selection Criteria
The odds are that, given a certain set of needs, there is an aluminum alloy that will fit the situation at hand. Specifying the material properties needed for a project is the first step in choosing the right type of aluminum for the job. Designers must calculate the desired strength, resilience, and manufacturing characteristics of their project first, and then decide which alloy is most suited towards that application. When choosing an aluminum grade, the following are essential factors to be considered: - Formability or Workability
- Weldability
- Machining
- Corrosion Resistance
- Heat Treating
- Strength
- Typical end-use applications
A good starting place is a general-purpose alloy such as 6061, 3003, or 5052 aluminum, but of course, specific needed properties will call for a more specialized alloy. When in doubt, go with aluminum that is used in similar applications, and/or use the information contained in this article to inform your material selection. Feel free to use our supplemental articles to provide more information on specific alloys, and don’t be afraid to ask an aluminum supplier for guidance; they will most likely know best.
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